The concept of leadership in US and japan

The concept of leadership in US and japan Introduction United States and Japan are two giant economic powers in the pacific region. Each country has developed their own management and leadership practice that is suitable for their culture. Gupta, Hanges Dorfman (2002) found that United States is clustered in the same group as Australia, New Zealand and England in the Anglo Culture while Japan is in the same group as Korea, China and Taiwan in the Confucian Asia. The argument is that the nations in the same cluster have more closely related culture than the other cluster. Despite the cultural differences there is one significant aspect where United States and Japan are similar; both countries embrace the capitalism ideology. However Ralson, Holt, Terpstra Cheng (2008) suggest that the Japanese interpretation of capitalist idea is not identical to their US counterpart. That is one reason why Japan can still preserve their culture regardless the westernization enforced by globalization. Leadership is one of the areas where the Japanese is still different compared to United States. Due to long economic and political relation between Japan and United States, it can be argued that there are some exchanges of values and belief. Which raise the question whether the leadership across the different culture is different in its entirety or have similarities? This essay is aimed to compare and contrast the western approach to leadership represented by United States and the eastern approach to leadership represented by Japan by using Hofstedes five dimension of culture as the factor of comparison. The essay will first explain the culture and its dimensions and then followed by the detailed description of each dimension by comparing both United States and Japan in each section. After that the suggested leadership style based on path-goal theory and rewarding system will be provided for each country on the framework of five culture dimension. Also the issue where leadership transcends the cultural boundaries which is possessed by transformational leaders will be discussed and to be concluded in the end. However it is important to note that the culture dimension of Hofstede is only a general perspective of a countrys culture. Cultural dimension Luthans and Doh (2009) define culture as a system that is integrated into the society where the accumulated experience of behavior and characteristics of the members is the foundation. Therefore the culture affects legal system, education, economic system, management practice and leadership style and perception. Some culture requires a leader to be democratic, where in other culture an autocratic leadership style is more appropriate (Hartog, House, Hanges Ruiz-Quintanilla, 1999). That is why it is important to understand the similarities and differences across culture, especially the Japanese and United States to compare and contrast both nation approaches to leadership. To compare the leadership of United States and Japanese culture the model that will be used is Hofstedes (1980, 2001) cultural dimension which consist of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism collectivism, masculinity femininity, and future orientation. Even though there has been much criticism for the generalization of a nations culture and its inability to represent the cultural differences within each country (Siyakumar Nakata, 2001), this model still can be used to compare the differences of leadership in United States and Japanese culture because the behavior and characteristics of leaders in one country is relatively the same compared to the other regardless. Power distance The concept of leadership is closely related to the power distance between the leaders and their followers. This is because the role of a leader is related to power, influence and status in the society or in organization (Lord Maher, 1991 as cited in Hartog et al., 1999). Power distance itself is the degree of acceptance from the society of the power and authority distribution in organizations and institutions, defined by Hofstede (1980, 2001). Power distance and decision making process and authority are related together in inversely manner (Schuler Rogoysky, 1998). United States is regarded as a country with low power distance in the culture dimension. Therefore the decision making and responsibility is more likely to be more directed from the leaders. On the counterpart the Japanese decision making process is unique where the process has to go through peer consultation before it is approved. This is also related to the responsibility of leaders in each country. Glinow, Huo and Lowe (1999) assert that pursuing goals and degree of responsibility varies depends on the degree of leaders authoritarianism. Individualist Collectivist This dimension is defined as a degree of framework where society is closely related to their group or not (Hofstede, 1980, 2001). In individualist countries where people are more concerned about their own interest and needs, leaders tend to take credit of their success. Compared to the countries where collectivism is more valued the credit of success goes to the group. This is similar to the argument of Yan and Hunts (2005) argument where: â€Å"Individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., where leaders often take credit for their organizations success, inference-based perceptions dominate. However, in collective cultures, such as Japan, where self-effacement is valued, leaders often keep a low profile when their organizations succeed, and recognition-based perceptions dominate†. Lack of insensitivity towards the culture which ignores the expected behavior, value and assumptions can put leaders at stake, especially leaders that expatriate to another country where the cultural dimension is different. This dimension is well affected by the socioeconomic development of a country and also its democratization which increase the independent thought and action, concern of others, acceptance to change, self indulgence and pleasure and decrease the conformity, tradition and security (Schwarz Sagie, 2000). Masculinity Femininity The values that is dominant in masculine societies are the materialistic objectives, not caring for others and assertiveness while feminine society have different values such as quality of life, social relationship and caring for others (Hofstede, 2001). Again the U.S and Japan is in the opposite side of this dimension. Leadership in U.S does not tolerate poor performance in the organization while its counterpart the Japanese allow poor performance if the subordinate is to learn from the mistakes. This dimension is also linked explicitly with the gender differences. In the research conducted by Wu Minor (1997) comparing female managers in United States Japan and Taiwan they found out those female managers in United States tend to be more practical and aggressive compared to their counterpart in Japan and Taiwan. Even though there are significant differences in leadership of female managers in United States and Japan, it seems that in both countries leadership role is dominated by male compared to female, despite both nation acceptance of equality in gender. Uncertainty avoidance Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the degree to which certain culture willing to take or reject the risk associated with the decision (Hofstede, 1980, 2001). In relation to leadership this dimension does not explain directly how a leader in certain culture, rather it explain on one of the aspect of leaders criteria based on their loyalty to the organization. Glinow et al. (1999) suggest that in a country where the uncertainty avoidance is high loyalty is significant factor and leaders is perceived as giving a behavioral model for their subordinate, however in the countries where uncertainty avoidance is low this is not a factor. For instance Japanese workers which is categorized in culture with high uncertainty avoidance values their job highly and most likely to be the important part of their personal life, especially if they work in large corporation (Ouchi Jaeger, 1978). This phenomenon will not be found in United States where the uncertainty avoidance is low. The system in most western countries is based on a person achievement. One can be a leader as long as they have sufficient ability and capability to regardless the period of working in the company. Future orientation The final culture dimension added by Hofstede (2001) and it is simply state that certain countrys cultural orientation is on the long term while other is short term. Japan is one of the countries that are categorized in the long term. As pointed out by Alston (1989) that the Japanese leaders evaluate the activities in term on the long term development of organization. This is in congruence with their high loyalty to organization. On the other hand the United States is mostly oriented to the short term because of their achievement based value. United States Leadership United States has been the subject in this essay as the country that highly represents the low context culture. The culture has the characteristics of low power distance, high individualistic, masculine, low uncertainty avoidance and short term oriented in the cultural dimension. Therefore it is more suitable for United States leaders to use participative, supportive leadership and implement the reward and punishment (Dorfman, Hibino, Lee, Tate Bautista, 1997). Participative leadership can be used because the fact that United States is a country with high individualistic and also strongly hold to democratic system. However it is not the case for directive leadership because most workers in United States are highly educated with skills and experience (Kerr Jermier, 1978). Supportive leadership is also acceptable due to moderate to strong relationship of leaders and followers (Indvik, 1986 cited in Dorfman, et al., 1997).Due to the materialistic nature of United States culture the reward and punishment system is effective. According McClelland Boyatzis (1982) high individualism and high achievement is also factors leveraging the effectiveness of reward and punishment in United States. Thus leaders in this country should use these different leadership styles depending on the demand of situations to effectively lead the people in the organization. Japanese Leadership Japanese is regarded as a country with high power distance, moderately collectivist, more feminine, low uncertainty avoidance and long term orientated. Arguably, external pressure arising from the expansion of globalization will eventually force Japanese to converge towards the western values and norms that are deemed to be global and standardized (Frenkel, 1994 as cited in Dalton Benson, 2002). Ornatowski (1998) also concurred to the notion of forces of globalization of creating one world market will lead to standardization of management practice across the globe including ending Japanese-style Leadership. However, Dalton Benson (2002) observed although Japanese firms are undergoing transformational phase of â€Å"westernize† management practices, the effort fall short as constraints exist by strong employment security enforced and supported by legal framework, traditional management values, government policy and advocating position from enterprise union prevail. Therefore Japanese leaders, directive, supportive, rewarding system is more appropriate (Dorfman, et al., 1997). Directive and supportive leadership style is acceptable because of the Japanese has their own mentor relationship system â€Å"sempai-kohai† which can not be found in United States. This relationship system can increase the personal bond between leaders and followers (Chen, 1995 as cited in Dorfman, et al., 1997). The participative leadership style is not acceptable because the power distance of leaders and followers in Japan is relatively high. And because of the cultural value and the loyalty to the company, rewarding can have more influence rather than punishing system. Transformational Leadership Transformational leaders have several attributes that are universally seen as contributing to outstanding leadership (Hartog et al., 1999). Luthans Doh (2009) suggest that those attributes can be characterized into four interrelated factors: idealized influence, Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual stimulation and Individualized consideration. Transformational leaders are the source of charisma and they increase the confidence, loyalty or followers by providing vision that the later accept. The effectiveness of leaders charisma is follower dependent especially if there was a significant change or crisis preceding (Northouse, 2001 as cited in Reave, 2005). Moreover Yukl (1998) as cited in Hartog et al. (1999) stressed that there is a negative consequences for followers to follow the leader if they have low self esteem. Nevertheless this factor of transformational leadership is accepted across culture. Transformational leaders are also extremely effective in articulating their vision and providing sense of purpose to the followers to idealize their influence. There are certain ways to communicate a vision leaders vision the followers such as soft spoken manner of Ghandi and bold manner of J.F. Kennedy (Hartog et al., 1999). These leaders have the capacity to stimulate their followers mind in challenging the old paradigm and accept new one in order to bring change and fulfill the vision. This can also mean that followers in organization are empowered by leaders to be more creative and by doing so bring more value to organization itself and being closer to the desired vision (Fry, 2003). Lastly the leaders that are categorized as transformational leaders are able to recognize the needs of their followers and fulfill those needs by their individualized consideration. This will enhance the trust and loyalty of their followers. High loyalty of followers can realize the achievement or vision and mission in more effective manner which is build by trust between leaders and their followers. This trust is one of the most important variables in leadership (Yukl, 2006 as cited in Jung, Yammarino Lee, 2009). Conclusions Firstly it can be concluded that despite Japan and United States have the same ideology of capitalism, the cultural value of each country have a very significant impact on the Japanese and United States Leadership style. Though the cultural dimension is treated one by one in contrasting Japan and United states, it is also true that those five dimensions can simultaneously affect the value and belief that is important for both leaders and followers (Offermann Hellmann, 1997). And congruence in value and belief with the culture increase the effectiveness and acceptance of the contingency theory (House Aditya, 1997).Secondly there are some aspects of leadership that is acceptable across the cultural differences. For instance the Transformational leadership mentioned earlier. That is affected not only by leaders but also the followers are important factor to consider. These findings can be used by leaders and managers in organization, especially when they are faced with situation to lead people from different cultural background. It is also not limited only in organizational level but also for personal understanding to better learn and develop their leadership quality. References Alston, J. P. (1989). Wa, Guanxi, and Inhwa: managerial principles in Japan, China and Korea. Business Horizons, 32(2), 26-31. Dalton, N. Benson, J. (2002). Innovation and change in Japanese Human Resource Management. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 40, 345-362. Dorfman, P. W., Hibino, S., Lee, J. K., Tate, U. Bautista, A. (1997). Leadership in Western and Asian countries: Commonalities and differences in effective leadership process across cultures. Leadership Quarterly, 8(3), 233-274. Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 14, 693-727. Glinow, M. A. V., Huo, Y. P. Lowe, K. (1999). Leadership across the Pacific Ocean: a trinational comparison. International Business Review, 8, 1-15. Gupta, V., Hanges, P. J. Dorfman, P. (2002). Cultural clusters: methodology and findings. Journal of World Business, 37, 11-15. Hartog, D. N. D., House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Ruiz-Quintanilla S. A. (1999). Culture specific and crossculturally generalizable implicit leadership theories: are attributes of charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed?. Leadership Quarterly. 10(2), 219-256. Hofstede, G. (1980). Cultures consequences: International differences in work-related alues (Abridged ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Hofstede, G. (2001). Cultures consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. House, R. J., Aditya, R. N. (1997). The social scientific study of leadership: Quo Vadis? Journal of Management, 23, 409-474. Jung, D., Yammarino, F. J. Lee, J. K. (2009). Moderating role of subordinates attitudes on transformational leadership and effectiveness: A multi-cultural and multi-level perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 586-603. Kerr, S., Jermier, J. (1978). Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22, 374-403. Luthans, F. Doh, J. (2009) International Management: Culture, Strategy and Behavior (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin. McClelland, D., Boyatzis, R.E. (1982). Leadership motive pattern and long term success in management. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(6), 737-743. Offermann, L. R., Hellmann, P. S. (1997). Cultures consequences for leadership behavior: National values in action. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28(3), 342-351. Ornatowski, G. (1998). The end of Japanese-style human resource management. Sloan Management Review. 39(3). 73-84. Ouchi, W. G., Jaeger, A. M. (1978). Type Z organization: stability in the midst of mobility. Academy of Management Review, 3, 308-311. Ralston, D. A., Holt, D. H., Terpstra, R. H. Cheng, Y. K. (2008). The impact of national culture and economic ideology on managerial work values: a study of the United States, Russia, Japan and China. Journal of International Business Studies. 39, 8-26. Reave, L. (2005). Spiritual values and practices related to leadership effectiveness. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 655-687. Schuler, R. S., Rogovsky, N. (1998). Understanding compensation practice variations across firms: The impact of national culture. Journal of International Business Studies, 29, 159-177. Schwartz, S. H., Sagie, G. (2000). Value consensus and importance: A cross-national study. Journal of International Business Studies, 14(2), 61-74. Sivakumar, K., Nakata, C. (2001). The stampede toward Hofstedes framework: Avoiding the sample design pit in cross-cultural research. Journal of International Business Studies, 32, 555-574. Wu, W. Minor, M. S. (1997). Role Perceptions, Personal Traits, Lifestyles and Leadership: an Empirical Study of American, Japanese, and Taiwanese Female Managers. International Business Review. 6 (1). 19-34.

Food Dye Lab Essay

Abstract: The purpose of this lab was to determine the food dyes present in a selected beverage, their concentration, and then replicate the solution within a 20% margin of error. The beverage we chose was Gatorade Frost Riptide Rush. A spectrometer was used to determine which food dyes were present in the sampled beverage, red 40 and blue 1 were determined to be present. The next step was to determine the concentration of the dyes, this was done by testing the absorbance of the red 40 and blue 1 dyes at varying concentrations; 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, and 20%. The results for each dye were then plotted in a graph and a trendline was added. The slopes of the trendlines (y=mx) for red 40 and blue 1 were then used to determine the concentrations, which were found to be 15.34% (0.0000138 mol/L) and 14.12% (0.0000028 mol/L) respectively. To replicate the color of the original beverage a 100mL solution was designed, containing 15.34mL red 40, 14.12mL blue 1, and 70.54mL deionized (DI) water. Introduction: This lab was divided into three sections; identifying which dyes are present, determining the concentration of those dyes, and finally to recreate the solution within a 20% margin of error. To identify the dyes present a sample of the beverage was tested in a spectrometer, the highest absorption rates were found to be at 503.7 nm (A=0.281) and 630.7 nm (A=0.270). This lead to the conclusion that the beverage contained red 40 and blue 1. To determine the concentration of the dyes a series of dilutions was prepared for both dyes and tested with the spectrometer. This data was converted into point graphs and a trendline was established. The slope of the trendline (y=mx) was then multiplied by the Absorbance of the associated dye to find the concentration. The final goal was to replicate the beverage using the data gathered. To accomplish this a solution was designed consisting of 15.34% red 40 and 14.12% blue 1. Experimental Procedure: To complete the experiment a variety of materials and equipment was required. The spectrometer tests required a computer with Logger Pro software, samples of Gatorade Frost Riptide Rush as well as red 40 and blue 1 dyes, DI water, a spectrometer, cuvettes. In order to prepare the dilutions and replicated solution 10mL & 100mL graduated cylinders, various beakers, a 200mL erlenmeyer flask, and a glass stirring rod. To identify the dyes present in the Gatorade, a test was performed with the spectrometer. The first step was to set-up the spectrometer and calibrate it using a sample of pure DI water. Following this a cuvette was partially filled with a sample of Gatorade and inserted into the spectrometer to be tested. The points of highest absorption were determined to indicate the presence of red and blue dyes. The initial step to determine the concentration of the dyes previously found was to prepare a set of serial dilutions at 20%/40%/60%/80%/100% dye concentration. To prepare the 20% dilution 1mL of red 40/blue 1 was combined with 4mL of DI water. This method was used to produce the remaining dilutions with 2mL/3mL, 3mL/2mL, 4mL/1mL, and 5mL/0mL (mL dye / mL DI water). Each of the previous dilutions was tested in the spectrometer and data was recorded. Using the data obtained two Beer Law plots were plotted for both dyes and trendlines were added. The slope of the trendline was found and used to calculate the actual (mol/L) and percent concentrations of red 40 and blue 1 in the selected Gatorade. In order to replicate the color of the Gatorade, a 100mL solution consisting of red 40, blue 1, and DI water. This was accomplished by combining 15.34mL red 40, 14.12mL blue 1, and 70.54mL DI water in a 200mL erlenmeyer flask. A sample of this solution was then transferred into a cuvette to be tested in the spectrometer. The solution was tested alongside the data from the Gatorade sample, and the margin of error was calculated to conclude how similar the two solutions were.

Networking Systems - 1077 Words

By the development of new communication technologies, especially as Internet become widespread, various aspects of social, economic and political lives such as constitutional forming and societal interfaces have been considerably changed. Apart from this, as Turkle (1999) also claimed; A rapidly expanding system of networks, collectively known as the Internet, links millions of people together in new spaces that are changing the way we think, the nature of our sexuality, the form of communities, our very identities (Turkle, 1999: 643) Turkle is one of the scholars who were aware of the potential influences of the rapidly expanding networking systems at our lives, cultures, beliefs, politics, and even at our identity formations. Thirteen†¦show more content†¦As Berger (2012) criticized â€Å"if the media have the ability to shape the consciousness of large numbers of people†¦.then the fact that a relatively small number of people control the media (and thus have enormous power) is alarming†(p.65). However, in the communication process of digital environment, as mentioned before, changing roles of senders/receivers brings necessity of reconstruction of the power relations at the production of knowledge and at its diffusion as well as drawing attention to changing patterns of communication. Lachepelle (2011/9) stated that social media as a way of spreading information to a comprehensive audiences where users have a chance to form and diffuse content, involve numerous technological means and processes for exchanging information. New age media, which is going to be used in replacement of virtual reality and new space of communication during the present study, is constituted by a very small part of wider political, social, economic and financial networks (Whittaker, 2004) and going to denote the real and imagined space in which individuals meet in electronically mediated and simulated spaces. 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Should Marijuana Be Legal - 1884 Words

Growing up, everybody is informed that, to don’t do drugs, or that drugs are bad for them consistently. Usually as a child you don t generally comprehend the â€Å"why â€Å"behind it, yet you listen to your parents. I was told this my whole life by my elders and the people around me and even right up today. Be that as it may, as time went on I noticed that people still use drugs even though it is against the lawl. I would never comprehend why somebody would be willing to break the law and endanger their life just to utilize drugs? One specific drug that am referring to is marijuana also known as marijuana or weed, and shockingly it is surrounding us. This topic is all over today s media sources that we use every day, similar to music, films, and TV appears, I have never used the drug myself, but I had some friends who experienced with marijuana and knowing its consequences for others, I ask why it s not legitimate. Can any anyone explain why marijuana has ended up legal almost everywhere throughout the world? I believe that marijuana in the United States of America has been battled with this drug since it first was presented. Marijuana has been verified to give an exceptionally positive effect on the American culture for some reasons. Some of these reasons are for America s economy. . These reasons could extremely well help America flourish later on and that is the reason Marijuana ought to be legitimized in the United States of America. This actually discovered plant knownShow MoreRelatedShould Marijuana Be Legal?1609 Words   |  7 PagesMs. Fingarson English 11 March 9th, 2017 Junior Research Paper: Marijuana Should Be Legal. 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